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1.
¿WHY ARE EARTHQUAKES PRODUCED?
Seismic activity is measured on the Richter Scale. Earthquakes, their definition, characteristics, secondary effects. Tectonic plates, Alfred Wegener. Summary.
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2.
¿HOW IS A HUMAN-BEING FORMED?
Description of male and female genital organs. Ovum and sperm. Fertilisation. Zygote. Cellular division. The human embrion and its development. Birth. Summary.
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3.
¿WHAT IS BLOOD?
How blood transports oxygen, food and hormones to cells. Composition of blood. Blood groups. Blood transfusions and RH factor. Summary.
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4.
¿WHAT IS LIGHT?
Description of light’s natural properties. Its relationship with colour. Different behaviours in air or water. Sources of light. Electromagnetic waves. Speed of light. Summary.
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5.
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Origins of different animal species. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. Animals. Protozoa or single-celled animals. Characteristics of Protozoa. Multi-celled animals, or Metazoa. Characteristics of Metazoa: their function, ways of moving, areas where they live, structure. Summary.
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6.
ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA
Atmospheric phenomena directly influence the formation of different landscapes of our planet. Weather forecast. The atmosphere, its definition, structure and function. The troposphere: Rain, hail, lightening and cloud formation. Rainfall. Storms: thunder storms, hurricanes and tornadoes. Meteorological observation stations. Summary.
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7.
THE ANTARCTIC
Description of the Antarctic, location, climate and characteristics. The Antarctic Continent, its severe climate, poor vegetation. The blue whale, marine elephant, seals, penguins & albatrosses. The conquest of the South Pole: Amundsen, Scott,... Scientific observation stations of different countries. Summary.
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8.
WHAT IS ENERGY?
The origins of energy. Energy through the ages. Definition of energy. Physical and chemical changes. The discovery of fire: calorific energy. The invention of machines. Actual energy source: petroleum. Transformation of energy: windmills, photosynthesis, mechanical, electrical and luminous energies. The Sun, Earth’s principal source of energy. Sources of energy. Energy reserves. Summary.
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9.
LAND TRANSPORT
Evolution of land transport. First vehicles: Materials used, functions, shapes. History: The Middle Ages Renaissance, XVII century. The Industrial Revolution: The first steam engines and railways. Electric trains. Diesel engines. High-speed trains. Two-wheeled vehicles: bicycles. Cars. Fuels used. Summary.
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10.
AIR TRANSPORT
Man’s first attempts to fly. History of aerostatic balloons and dirigibles. Aeroplanes. Leonardo da Vinci. First powered flight. Monocasque aircraft. The First World War: the Douglas "DC 3". The Second World War: jet aircraft. The Concorde. Gliders and helicopters. Summary.
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11.
HOW DO WE TRAVEL INTO SPACE?
Man’s first attempts at space flight. The Chinese invented gunpowder-propelled rockets. Jet rockets. Newton’s Third Law. Fuels. Speeds of rockets. Brief history of satellites. First manned space-flights. Launchings. Man’s setting foot on the Moon. The first recoverable spaceship, or space "shuttle". Summary.
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12.
THE CONQUEST OF THE MOON
Moon conquest, the realisation of man’s dreams. The Moon, its definition, characteristics and phases. Eclipses. NASA and the Apollo Project. The first space satellite, "Sputnik". Yuri Gagarin, Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Michael Collins. The "Saturn V" rocket. Man’s first footprints on the Moon. The journey back to Earth. Summary.
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13.
COMETS
Whereas, in ancient days, comets were considered to be harbingers of ill-fortune, nowadays they provide possible answers as to the origins of our Solar System. Composition of comets, structure and their behaviour-patterns in the Solar System. Comets’ orbits, origins and evolution. Halley’s Comet. Space-probes sent to meet Halley’s and its true composition. Summary.
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14.
EXPLORATORY SPACESHIPS
The first man-made satellite, "Sputnik I". Space-probes and how they investigate other worlds. Structure of these worlds, their climate, geological composition and magnetic fields. The Moon, Earth’s natural satellite. Launching of satellites to the Moon, Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Mercury. The "Voyager I" Mission to Jupiter and Saturn. The "Voyager" Mission to Uranus, Neptune and its leaving our Solar System. Those space-probes which send us information from outside our Solar System. Summary.
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15.
WHAT ARE THE STARS?
Definition of stars, their structure and where they are to be found. Formation of stars. The Milky Way – made up of approximately 15,000 million stars. The Sun, our best-known star. The Solar System: Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The Earth receives just enough energy for life to exist on it. Different kinds of stars and their evolution. Summary.
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16.
HOW DID LIFE BEGIN?
The Earth, a planet full of life. All living-beings are basically made up of the same chemical elements. The principal characteristics of living organisms is their being able to reproduce themselves. DNA. The beginning of the Earth’s formation, some 4,500 million years ago. The theories of Alexander Oparin and Miller. The first organisms and their evolution through time. Summary.
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17.
THE DNA
DNA, a molecule found in the cell’s nucleus containing information about protein synthesis. It also transmits information related to genetic inheritance. The research of George Mendel. Structure and localisation. Functions of DNA. RNA. Human genetics. Mutation and evolution. Summary.
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18.
WHAT ARE VOLCANOES?
Their description, where they are to be found and their formation. Description of magma, craters, chimney and volcanic cones. The Kailua Volcano. Fissure and Central Volcanoes. Other types of volcanoes: Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian and Pelean volcanoes. The explosion of the Island of Krakatoa. Volcanic zones. Summary.
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19.
WHAT ARE GLACIERS?
Description of glaciers, their movement and speed. Glaciers at the Polar Caps. Glacial erosion. A famous pyramidal peak: Mount Cervino. Fjords. Glaciers also transport moraines. Glacial circuses and valleys. Summary.
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20.
POLLUTION
Modern-day man enjoys many different kinds of comforts, such as machines and faster and more efficient means of transport. In certain aspects, we can say that he has managed to dominate nature. Waste products. Radioactive left-overs, Dwindling natural resources. Biological cycles. Mankind has altered nature’s delicate balance. Industry – our greatest producer of residues. Acid rain. Recycling techniques. Cities. Biodegradable products. The countryside. Summary.
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21.
WHAT IS THE SEA LIKE?
Surface area occupied by seas. The depths. Marine plants. Characteristics of sea-water. Ocean currents. The temperature of sea-water affects continental climates and their coast-lines. Wave and tide formation. Tsunamis, waves of gigantic proportions. The sea bed. Underwater gas and petroleum deposits. Summary.
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22.
WHAT IS NUCLEAR ENERGY
The Big Bang. All bodies in space are made up of the same matter, including living-beings. Composition of matter – aproximately 100 elements. Atoms – their definition, structure and composition. Atomic numbers of different elements. First nuclear fission ever carried out by Otto Hahn. Albert Einstein and the relation between mass and energy. Nuclear reactors. Radioactive materials.
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23.
KINEMATICS
Kinematics: the science that studies movement. Velocity of our planet. Trajectories of bodies. Rectilinear movement. Circular movement. Velocity: the relation between space and time. Galileo. Gravitational acceleration. Angular velocity and acceleration. Summary.
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24.
SEA TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Story of ships through time. Triangular sails. How ships function. The Principle of Archimedes. First propellers. Different types of vessels: fishing-boats, those used for military purposes, transport, petrol-tankers, towboats and tugs. Recent marine inventions such as hydrofoils and hovercraft. Summary.
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25.
HOW TELESCOPES WORK
Telescopes in by-gone days. Refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes. Large telescopes. The job of modern-day telescopes. The Milky Way, black holes and the beginnings of the Universe. Summary.
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26.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
The atmosphere: Its composition, evolution and alterations. Smog. Power-plants: the Industries which contaminate most. Compounds released by aerosols. Natural sources of contamination. Effects of contamination: Acid rain, CFC’s, ... Summary.
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27.
FORCE AND MOTION
All living-beings can move. Both simple and sophisticated machines are governed by the same principles. Different kinds of force, their definitions, examples and characteristics. Balanced forces. Definition of the movement of a force. Summary.
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28.
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
The XVII century – the first studies of blood circulation are carried out and Leibniz invents the fore-runner of the modern computer. Einstein and his Theory of Relativity. The study of comets in the XVII century. At last, Newton appears, together with his observations concerning universal gravity. Newton’s First Law, or Law of Inertia. Newton’s Second Law. Newton’s Third Law. Summary.
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29.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum: the most widely-used fuel in XX century’s industrialised society. Composition of petroleum and how it’s formed. Extraction of crude-oil. Refining of petroleum. Products obtained from petroleum. Summary.
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30.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SPECIES
Theories of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. The Theory of Evolution. Mendel – hereditary characteristics, genes and chromosomes. Study of fossils. Summary.
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31.
INSECTS
Insects: 80% of all animal species living on our planet. Characteristics of Arthropods: definition, habitat, structure. Insects’ evolution and their characteristics. Insects and ecosystems. Sense organs. Summary.
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32.
WATER
Water on our planet. Composition of water. Processes in which water intervenes. Localisation. Density of water. Ice. Water and life in deserts and jungles. Water and man: human-beings, Industry. Summary.
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33.
THE SENSE OF SIGHT
The organs of sight, elements of great importance for survival. The human eye: description, characteristics, behaviour. Eyes of animals: characteristics of eyes of bats, single-celled animals, squids, chameleons, birds, mammals, insects and human-beings. Summary.
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34.
HOW IS TRAFFIC ORGANISED?
Use of transport. Cars, buses, ships and planes. The wheel, an invention of vital, historical importance. Roman roadways, how they were laid and their history. Urban traffic: the Highway Code, pavements, traffic lights. Automation: traffic control. Summary.
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35.
WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
Atmospheric phenomena present in nature: i.e. a storm. Electric current, its composition and behaviour. Good and bad conductors. Electric, nuclear and Eolic power-stations. Uses of electricity. Summary.
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36.
THE WORLD OF BEES
Insects are the most numerous group of the Animal Kingdom. General information about bees. The hive: characteristics and functions of drones, queen and workers. Bees and ecosystems. Communication between bees. Summary.
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37.
THE EVOLUTION OF MANKIND
Life appeared on our planet thousands of millions of years ago. Most of Mankind’s history was never actually written down. Characteristics of Prehistoric Man. Primates: their origins, characteristics, skulls and evolution. Homo Sapiens. Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon Men. Summary.
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38.
THE SUN: SOURCE OF ENERGY AND LIFE
The sun is only one the thousands of stars found in our Galaxy. Physical characteristics of the Sun: size, distance, mass, temperature,... The Sun’s energy: its main chemical element is Hydrogen. Helium atoms. Nuclear fusion. The Seas. The Sun and life: Whereas plants use the Sun’s energy directly, man uses the same energy in different ways. Summary.
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39.
SATELLITES
The Moon, Earth’s natural satellite. Artificial satellites, man-made machines which continuously circle the Earth. Launching of artificial satellites, destined to measure temperatures, detect radiation, transmit information and photograph the Universe. Brief history of man-made satellites. Different kinds of satellites: communication, military and those destined for use in astronomy. The "Hubble" space telescope. Summary.
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40.
WHAT ARE CELLS LIKE?
Cells, those basic units from which all living-beings are made up. Cells are grouped together in tissues. Cells: Their composition, quantity, size, characteristics,... Cellular functions: chromosomes forming DNA chains. The composition of viruses. Composition of cells: nucleus, cytoplasm, membrane. Differences between animal and plant cells. Cellular reproduction. Mitosis, meiosis. Summary.
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41.
MARINE LIFE
Nowadays, it’s generally accepted that life appeared for the first time in the seas. Different forms of sea-life: mammals, arthropods, reptiles, fish. Banks of fish. Different sea-zones: pelagic and benthonic. Plankton and zoo-plankton. Life in benthonic regions. Summary.
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42.
HOW AN AEROPLANE WORKS
Since time began, man has always envied birds being able to fly. Leonardo da Vinci: Prototypes of flying-machines. Modern-day planes- means of rapid transport. Wings: essential elements for flight. History of wings. Take-off characteristics. Summary.
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43.
COMBUSTION ENGINES
The majority of machines which we use in our everyday life work because they have engines which, in turn, need different sources of energy: Heat, fuels, electricity and nuclear energy. Electricity: thermal power-stations. External combustion engines. Thomas Newcomen. Steam engines. Internal combustion engines: cars, for example. Nicholas Otto, inventor of the first, 4-stroke piston engine. Rudolph Diesel: inventor of a very important variation of an internal combustion engine. Summary.
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44.
FORCES WHICH GOVERN OUR UNIVERSE
Everything which occurs in our universe is basically governed by four different kinds of forces. Gravity: Einstein and Newton. Explanation. Electromagnetic Force: Maxwell. Explanation. Nuclear Forces: Atoms, Weak and Strong Nuclear Forces. Summary.
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45.
PHOTOGRAPHY
Photography allows us to "freeze" our surroundings. Officially, photography was invented 150 years ago. Fields in which photography is used: reporting, fashion, biology, art and artificial satellites, to mention just a few. Isaac Newton demonstrated that sunlight can be broken up into a colour spectrum. History of photography: Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, Eastman, Kodak, Mannes and Godowski. Different parts of a camera: diaphragm, lens, view-finder. Film: its composition, negatives. Summary.
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46.
THE WORLD OF PLANTS
A vast world which covers microscopic beings and huge trees 100 metres tall weighing more than 100 tons. Chlorophyll: responsible for photosynthesis. The first plants to appear in the seas were unicellular algae: their evolution and appearance upon dry land. Mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants. Characteristics and reproductive devices of each of the above. Summary.
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47.
HOW WAS WRITING BORN?
Writing: a means of communication. Testimonial legacies from our past. What were previous civilisations like? Law, literature and science are all preserved and transmitted through their being written down. History of writing: The Sumerians, Mesopotamia, Egypt (hieroglyphics, papyrus) and Chinese writing. The Phoenician, Arabic and Greek alphabets. Johannes Gütenberg: The printing-press and its evolution. Summary.
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48.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The origin of the Solar System, approximately 5,000 million years ago. Theories concerning its composition. The Solar System, its mass, the planets of which it is made up, satellites. Future of the Solar System. Evolution of the Sun. Stars in other galaxies. Summary.
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49.
VIRUSES
Louis Pasteur and his fight against micro-organisms. The first appearance of the Electro-microscope. Nature of viruses and their composition. Viral infections, how they begin and their development. Viral illnesses. Summary.
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50.
RESPIRATION
In order to live, grow and reproduce, living-beings need energy – this they obtain from oxygen. Aerobic respiration, definition and characteristics. Respiratory organs. The process of photosynthesis in plants. Different beings and their respiratory processes. Human respiration, lungs and other organs. Summary.
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51.
THE PLANET EARTH
Situation of the planet Earth. Composition of the Earth. Characteristics of the Earth’s surface. Life on Earth: Different kinds of animals, plants, fish. Summary.
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52.
CIVILISATION’S PROGRESS
Our actual civilisation is the result of a learning-process which has been going on for thousands of years. The discovery of fire. Agriculture. The Wheel. The invention of writing: Egyptians, Phoenicians, Romans, The Middle Ages. Modern History: Christopher Columbus and the discovery of America. Galileo, Kepler, Isaac Newton, Newcomen, James Watt. The Industrial Revolution: Gregor Mendel, Niepce, Edison, Otto Benz, Lumière Brothers. Summary.
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53.
CARS
Cars, perhaps the most familiar form of daily transport. Gottlieb Daimler: the very first car. Henry Ford: Model "T" Ford. The Second World War: Volkswagen. High number of cars in circulation cause serious problems regarding traffic and contamination. History of engines. Characteristics and workings of an engine, gear-box and steering. Advances regarding comfort and safely for drivers: ABS, micro-computer control and governing of engines. Summary.
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54.
THE MOVIE INDUSTRY
Movie technique is similar to that of taking photographs with the exception that, instead of taking single pictures, a rapid sequence of images called "frames" is filmed. An optical defect in our eyes called "retinal persistence" is what conveys the impression that we are watching continuous movement. Edison and the beginnings of the movie industry . The "Kinescope". The Lumière Brothers and the first film ever shown in public. Brief history of cinema: George Mèlies, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton,... The process followed in the making of a movie. Summary.
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55.
SCIENTIFIC EVOLUTION IN THE XXTH CENTURY
The XX century is synonymous with spectacular and rapid advances in Science and Technology. Studies of different vaccines. First decades of the Century: Albert Einstein, Curie, Rutherford (atoms), Alfred Wegener (Theory of Continental Drift), the first powered flight, cars (Henry Ford)... The World Wars and technological advances: the first rocket, discovery of Tutankhamen’s tomb, "Australopithecus", Fleming, Oparin, Nuclear Fission,.... the conquest of space. Summary.
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56.
LIFE IN TROPICAL REGIONS
Given the diversity of climates, life has adapted itself differently in different regions. The Tropics and where they are located. The Equatorial Jungles and where they are located, their temperatures, rainfall and the plant and animal life found in them. Tropical Savannahs: location and general characteristics. Summary.
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57.
NUTRITION
Living-beings need food in order to: form different parts of their bodies during growth and obtain energy to replace that used by organs and tissues. The Plant Kingdom: plants capture and transform the Sun’s energy directly using the process of photosynthesis. Plants. Food: water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Digestion: phases and characteristics. Summary.
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58.
SPORTS
In our contemporary society, sports are becoming increasingly popular. Modern-day man tends to live a rather sedentary existence where physical exercise is being replaced by technical advances. Primitive man’s good physical condition was vital for his survival. The first competitions. Greeks and the first Olympic Games. Different kinds of collective and individual sports. The importance of sports. Summary.
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59.
THE BRAIN
The brain incorporates and process our heritage, knowledge, feelings and thoughts. The neurone, its definition, composition and function. Ramón y Cajal. Functions of the nervous system. Structure of the brain. Summary.
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60.
TELEVISION
The most important and characteristic means of communication in the XX century is television. How a television programme is made. How a television set works. Summary.
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61.
MAMMALS -I-
The most highly-developed animal group. Origins. Characteristics.
Different types of teeth.
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62.
MAMMALS -II-
Mammals with placenta. Mammals without placenta. Different types of mammals.
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63.
BIRDS
Origin of birds. Evolution from reptiles. Characteristics. Distribution. Migration.
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65.
REPTILES
Origins. Characteristics. Habitat. Tortoises and turtles, tuatara, crocodiles and lizards.
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66.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture meant the birth of civilisation. Soil: a living structure.Needs of plants. Farming techniques. Future of farming.
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67.
SKIN
Skin is the largest organ of a human body. Characteristics and structure. Means of temperature control. Skin is one huge sensory perception organ. How skin works.
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68.
THE SKELETON
Origin of the skeleton. Our bones are made of one of the hardest andmost-resistant materials in nature. The skeleton: a huge manufacturer of blood cells. Characteristics of the human skeleton.
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69.
THE INCAN EMPIRE
Origins, duration, extension and population. Social and economic structure. Engineering and scientific achievements. Machu Pichu. End of the Incan Empire.
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70.
THE HUMAN HEART
Mission of the heart. Characteristics of the cardiac muscle.Bio-electrical functions of the heart. Heart illnesses. Coronary surgery.
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71.
FORESTS
Kinds of forest. Geographical distribution. Importance of forests.Forests maintain the highest bio-diversity on our planet. Problem ofdeforestation.
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72.
THE HUMAN EAR
Structure of the human ear. Description of how it works.Characteristics of different sounds. Sonic contamination.
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73.
SMELL AND TASTE
Description of the tongue's functions of taste. Anatomical description of smell and explanation of what its job is.
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74.
THE KIDNEYS
Kidneys are the cleansing organs of the human body. Nefrones. How the kidney works. Dialysis.
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75.
THE DEATH OF A PHARAOH
Why did the Egyptians embalm their pharaohs? Why did they construct gigantic pyramids? What did they think of the world which surrounded them? The Ancient Egyptians were extraordinary builders. The discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamon. "The Book of the Dead."
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76.
THE MUSCLES
Muscles protect bones, articulations and other areas of our bodies.They are the body's principal source of warmth. They also allow us movement.
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77.
THE PYRAMID OF LIFE
Plants are the basic source of food for other living-beings. Nature is organised rather like a pyramid. Each level represents a different step in the food chain.
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78.
HEAT & LIVING-BEINGS
How changes in temperature affect different living-beings. How life on dry land adapted itself to vastly-different habitats on our planet.
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79.
TEMPERATURE & HEAT
Thermodynamics is the study of how heat moves. The Laws of Thermodynamics: one of the most solid bases in science. The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Why do objects heat up? Why do certain changes takeplace in our Universe?
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80.
SALT
Together with water, salt has been the most important substance ever in the history of mankind. Empires have been built thanks to salt. Ways of obtaining common salt. Why can't we drink sea-water?
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81.
JOURNEY TO THE HEART OF THE MATTER
A voyage to the smallest universe imaginable. The magnifying-glass. Optical microscope. Tunnel-effect microscope. The world of atoms. Thesub-atomic world: one where practically everything is empty. Quarks: the basic building blocks of all matter.
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82.
CARBON
Carbon is an essential element for life's development on this Earth of ours. The carbon cycle. Coal, diamonds and petroleum.
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83.
MAYAS -I-
Important contemporary milestones in the world's history during that period when the Ancient Mayan Empire reached its very peak. Origin of the Mayas. Mayan scriptures and calendar. Their independent discovery of the concept of mathematical "zero". The mysterious end of the Ancient Mayan Empire.
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84.
MAYAS -II-
The New Mayan Empire. Cities to the North of Yucatan. Mayan religion. The game of "pelota". The discovery of King Pacal's tomb. Noteworthydiscoveries of Mayan astronomers. Decadence of the Mayan civilisation. Their resistance to the Spanish invaders. Mayan spirit of liberty in today's world.
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85.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
DNA. Manipulation and transference of genetic information from one Organism to another. The present situation and hopes for Genetic Engineering in the future.
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86.
THE OTHER THREE KINGDOMS
Apart from the Kingdoms of Animals and Plants, there also exist 3 other, little-known, but extremely important Kingdoms: Protista, Protoctista and Fungi.
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87.
FISHING
The importance of the fishing industry.
It was one of the first ways that man obtained food.
From ancient times, fish were one of the most highly appreciated merchandises.
The most important fishing items are hooks and nets.
Trawling, normally carried out near coasts and deep-sea fishing..
Ships use modern echo-sounders and radars to locate shoals of fish.
Contamination and over fishing have stricken marine biodiversity deadly wounds. The damage may well be irreparable, but we are still in time to take urgent and effective steps on an international scale to stop life from disappearing completely from our oceans and seas.
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88.
PUTTING DATES TO THE PAST
Introduction to the subject.
How did we find out the Earth’s age
History: Scientists who played a role and their contributions (Archbishop Ussher/Lecrerc/Lord Kelvin/Arthur Holmes/Willard Libby)
Relative dating methods (stratography)
The 4 main Eras (Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic)
Fossils. Absolute Dating Techniques. Dendrochronology. Radioactive Absolute Dating.
Carbon-14. Laetoli. Our first predecessor to walk upright.
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89.
FRESH WATER
Water in its liquid state is the most abundantly found element in the biosphere and also the most important for life itself.
In its solid state, water floats, a characteristic that protects sea dwellers from the cold winter.
Water dissolves a great number of substances without reacting chemically with them.
It also has a high “latent heat” and several other, extremely important characteristics as far as living beings are concerned.
Roles played by the Seas in the biosphere.
Water consumption. Farming.
Water supply difficulties already exist on a world scale.
Fresh water resources are limited.
A world with a water shortage is an unstable world.
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90.
GLASS
How is glass obtained. Properties and use. Glass and its application in optics.
The importance of lenses in Science development.
How would the world be like without glass?
Glass and its use in industry. Glass in our own homes.
Innumerable uses of glass. Future applications of glass.
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91.
BIODIVERSITY
We use hundreds of products having their beginnings in wild plants and animals every single day.
The planet’s biggest biological diversity is found in tropical forests.
Fundamental processes and characteristic of the Earth’s biological history: the extinction of existing species and the appearance of new ones.
The most recent species to appear: Homo sapiens and the biological reality
Long-range consequences of the growth of human population
Towards the great extinction.
The Earth’s biological diversity is rapidly diminishing, perhaps irreversibly.
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92.
THE NITROGEN AND CARBON CYCLES IN NATURE
If we were to cremate the bodies of different living beings, we would see that the resulting ashes are surprisingly similar to one another: 95% percent of the time, they all break down into four elements sometimes referred to as the CHON acronym, namely Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen.
The Nitrogene Cycle.
During the Nitrogene Cycle, plants absorb this element in the shape of nitrates and nitries.
Nitrogen Fixation. How is Nitrogen returned back to the environment.
The fastest method of global carbon transfer by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Continuous actions of natural cycles.
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93.
THE WATER, PHOSPHOR AND SULPHUR CYCLES IN NATURE
As their name suggests, cycles unite plants with animals and human beings constantly.
What is the biosphere made up of. Biochemical cycles. The Water cycle.
Phosphor is rare but extremely important element. The Phosphor Cycle.
Sulphur is an essential nutrient. The Sulphur Cycle.
Though we may not realise it, we live our lives closely linked with Nature. Were it not for the continuous renovation of natural cycles, we simply could not survive.
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94.
METALS
Characteristics and properties of Metals. The appearance of metals in the future of mankind was so important that it divided history into the Stone Age, Bronze Age and the Iron Age.
Prehistory and History. Stone and Metal Age. Metals and tools. The first metals to be discovered. Advantages of metal compared to stone, wood and bone.
Pure Metals. Alloys. Heavy Metals. Iron. Aluminium. Bronze.
Without metals, machines, engines, vehicles and tools would not exist and without them, we would revert back to the Stone Age.
The importance of metals in our own survival.
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95.
MONEY
The appearance of money. Money and gold. Function of money. Role played by money in daily lives. Barter. Natural money. Metals.
Before money existed how was the trade process?
Money as an instrument and the meaning of money.
Metals frequently used as money. The first coins.
The Byzantine Bezant coin. The beginning of certificates.
Monetary Systems. The beginning of bank notes (XVI Century)
The actual value of money. The changes of nature of money.
Electronic money. The role that money plays in our world.
Material wealth. Modern-day money.
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96.
MILESTONES IN MEDICINE: ASEPSIS, ANAESTHESIA AND SURGERY
Surgery in the XVIII century and infections.
Revolution in surgery happened when three fundamental problems were overcome: pain through anaesthesia; infection through asepsis and antisepsis and haemorrhaging through blood transfusions.
Contribution of the German pharmacist Sertuerner in 1817.
Discovery of general anaesthesia.
Discovery of local anaesthesia by Karl oller.
Louis Pasteur contribution. Antisepsis and Asepsis.
The use of “Phenol” by Joseph Lister.
Discovery of the existence of different blood groups in 1901 by Karl Landsteiner.
Expectations for the XXI century
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97.
MILESTONES IN MEDICINE II: VACCINES AND ANTIBIOTICS
Vaccination or immunotherapy. (the smallpox virus)
Edward Jenner and the immunisation method against smallpox.
Typhus. Waldemar Haffkine developed the treatment against cholera.
Almroth Wright and the vaccine for typhus.
Diphteria, tuberculosis, whooping cough, yellow fever, measles, hepatitis B, chicken pox, meningitis.
Antiviral Drugs. Viruses.
The mechanisms of vaccines.
Antibiotics. The world before antibiotics were discovered. Paul Ehrlich. Alexander Fleming. Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. Albert Schatz.
The present and future of the antimicrobial war.
Molecular Medicine. Future hope: merging of quantum physics, computer science and DNA.
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98.
THE LIVER
Anatomy of the liver. Size and location. Function.
It is estimated that the liver carries out more than 500 biological functions…
Role played by the liver on the blood pressure
Some of the functions of the liver (detoxication, digestion, etc.)
The gall bladder and bile.
Diseases of the liver. The tremendous importance of the liver.
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99.
PLASTICS
Plastics in our technological world. History of plastics.
The first polymers (wool, rubber, silk and cellulose)
Charles Goodyear – vulcanising of rubber
Alexander Parkes (parkesine). John Wesley Hyatt and the synthesised celluloid.
Leo Baekeland and synthetic plastic.
What are plastics. Uses of plastic.
Thermoplastics . Thermostable plastics. Elastomers. The drawbacks of plastics.
Some characteristics of plastics.
Future of plastics.
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100.
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Historic hints. Irrigation channels of the River Nile. Strategic importance of Petra (today Jordan). Rome and the enormous civil engineering works. The influence of the Roman roads. Roman constructions still standing today (the Pantheon, the Ponte Fabricious, the Aqueduct of Segovia in Spain)
The Adrian’s Wall in Great Britain. The Great Wall of China. Roads and paths built by the Incas.
Bridges. The first bridges built. Rope bridges. Emblematic bridges.
Roads and Motorways. The first motorway network built in Germany prior to World War II.
Ports and Airports. Polders and Canals. Tunnels and Railways.
Other infrastructures.
Importance of Civil Engineering in our lives.
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101.
GEOMETRY IN OUR LIVES – Part I
Our daily lives are crammed full of objects we use constantly, designed with precise geometric shapes. The Clothoid. The Cycloid. The Catenary. The Helix.
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103.
CHEMISTRY IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES
Chemistry forms a routine part of our daily lives. Paints. Traditional photography. Photosynthesis. Chemistry is not just a book full of equations or a complex laboratory full of glass tubes.
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104.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
The man always has needed to count, calculate and handle information. Computers are present in practically all fields of human activity. The Abacus. The Eniac computer.
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105.
SIZE, SHAPE AND LIFE, Part I
All the many legions of creatures that inhabit our Planet undergo slow but continuous transformation under the implacable domination of the laws of Physics and Biology. Far from being a question of whim or mere chance, the shape and size of living beings are their responses to biological conditions.
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106.
SIZE, SHAPE AND LIFE, Part II
Human beings tend to attribute their success exclusively to their intelligence. They usually forget another determining factor: their size. The world of small animals, however, is brimming with fascinating surprises, some of which are precisely related to their small size and the extraordinary variety of their different shapes.
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107.
MATHEMATICS AND CIVILIZATION I
Mathematics, the most universal human invention to ever exist, is humanity’s common language. The origins of mathematics. Using hieratic writing. “The Elements” written by Euclid. Al’Khowarizmi.
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108.
MATHEMATICS AND CIVILISATION II
From Asia to Europe. The implementation of these new ideas in Europe took several hundred years, till the XII century. Progress in Mathematics ceased, however, in the XIV century because of the Black Plague that spread throughout Europe.
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109.
THE ENERGY OF LIFE
The Universe’s basic component is energy. Energy is behind all changes, transformations and movements. Even matter itself is nothing but concentrated energy. In a profound sense, EVERYTHING is energy.
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110.
LIVESTOCK RAISING
Livestock raising occupies an outstanding place within the primary sector including all activities related to exploiting natural resources.
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111.
TELECOMUNICATIONS
The need we humans have to relate to and communicate with others was one of the motors of technological development. As society became increasingly more complex, new media became necessary to cover greater distances. Thus telecommunications was born.
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112.
CARTOGRAPHY
For millennia, we humans have felt the need to understand the place in which we live. And what we slowly learnt, we put into maps that became increasingly precise. Cartography, or the science of map-making, consists in representing the spherical surface of the Earth, or part of it, on a flat surface.
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